Why the Bible is Trinitarian

An Introduction to Biblical or Proto-Nicene Trinitarianism: What the Bible Is

“When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all the truth…”
—John 16:13

In this promise from the Gospel of John, Jesus proclaims that the Holy Spirit will lead the Church into “all truth.” For many believers and scholars, this statement lies at the heart of understanding how the Church’s most central doctrines—particularly the doctrine of the Trinity—took shape over time. A common misconception is that the Trinity was essentially invented in the fourth century at the Council of Nicaea (AD 325) and later refined at the Council of Constantinople (AD 381), and thus is somehow extraneous to the earliest apostolic faith. Yet a closer look at the New Testament itself shows a kind of pre-Nicene or proto-Nicene Trinitarianism woven into the biblical text.

Rather than being a speculative or novel imposition upon the Bible, the Nicene articulation of the Trinity can be seen as a Spirit-guided, organic outgrowth of an already triadic understanding found in the earliest Christian writings. This proto-Nicene pattern is evident particularly in the letters of Paul, the Johannine corpus, and various liturgical formulas (e.g., baptism “in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit”).

This piece aims to give a robust account of what I will call “proto-Nicene Trinitarianism,” that is, to demonstrate why the Bible is both read as and is a form of Trinitarianism. I will explore how the New Testament authors—deeply rooted in Jewish monotheism—confessed that Jesus and the Holy Spirit fully share in the divine identity of the one God. And I will also show how the Church, guided by the Holy Spirit, discerned and preserved this faith in its worship and in the formation of the biblical canon. Furthermore I’ll give an examination of how the eventual Nicene and Niceno-Constantinopolitan formulations (AD 325 and 381) confirmed rather than replaced the Church’s proto-Nicene consciousness, and why no major “unbroken” alternative tradition with a non-Trinitarian reading of the very same Bible has survived from antiquity.

Ultimately, one will see in this presentation that Nicene definitions were not inventions of the fourth century but the Spirit-led, doctrinal articulation of a faith already pulsing through the earliest Christian communities—a faith that the Bible itself re-presents: a faith centered on the triune God—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. To embrace another approach is to diverge from this biblical witness, as restorationist movements tend to do.

In what follows, I will:

Situate the emergence of proto-Nicene theology in the context of the Holy Spirit’s role and the Church’s growth.
Examine how Jewish monotheism provided the bedrock for Christ’s exalted status and for confessing the Spirit’s divinity.
Survey Paul’s and John’s writings as prime witnesses to a triadic understanding of God.
Highlight the Holy Spirit’s personal role in shaping Christian worship, unity, and mission.
Show how the canonical process and finalization of the 27-book New Testament reinforced proto-Nicene convictions.
Address the emergence of Nicene terminology and councils.
Discuss pastoral and liturgical implications.
Examine the idea of the New Testament canon as “proto-Nicene” in light of historical challenges and alternative sects.
Conclude with the abiding significance of proto-Nicene Trinitarianism for the Church.

(For stylistic purposes, I will refer to a “we” beyond this point, so the reader doesn’t have to imagine a single individual’s commentary. I’m here to present what the Bible is, rather than offer merely personal reflections.)

By the end, it will be clear that the doctrine of the Trinity was not an afterthought: it was present in authentic form from the beginning, unfolding under the guidance of the Holy Spirit as the Church was “led into all truth.”

1. The Holy Spirit and the Formation of Trinitarian Doctrine

When we refer to “proto-Nicene” Trinitarianism, we mean the substance of the Church’s faith before the Council of Nicaea. The word “proto-” indicates that it precedes the fourth-century council and does not necessarily employ the same technical categories (e.g., ousia, hypostasis) that later became standard. However, the descriptor “Nicene” underscores that the New Testament and earliest Church were already proclaiming the same core truth that would eventually be dogmatically clarified at Nicaea and Constantinople: one God in three fully divine persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

1.1 “Led Into All Truth”

A key impetus for this process is the Holy Spirit’s ongoing role in the Church. Jesus’ promise in John 16:13 that the Spirit would “guide you into all truth” does not imply that brand-new revelations would supersede the apostolic witness. Rather, it suggests a deepening of insight into the once-for-all revelation of Christ. The earliest Christians believed that Christ’s death, resurrection, and sending of the Spirit contained, in principle, the fullness of God’s saving truth—yet unpacking the implications, especially regarding how the Father, Son, and Spirit relate, was necessarily gradual.

Indeed, the Holy Spirit’s guidance is manifested in both doctrinal and canonical developments:

Doctrinally, the Church struggled against heresies (such as Gnosticism and Arianism) that threatened to distort the apostolic proclamation of Christ’s full divinity and the Spirit’s personal nature.
Canonically, the Church recognized and preserved those writings that bore witness to Christ and the Spirit in a triadic framework, ultimately converging on the 27-book New Testament.

By the late 4th century, these parallel processes—defining orthodoxy and recognizing the canon—were substantially complete. The Church had weathered various crises but emerged with a clarified “rule of faith” that was explicitly Trinitarian. The driving force behind this was not merely external or philosophical but rooted in the belief that the Spirit of God was guiding the entire Church—East and West—into the fullness of truth.

1.2 The Church’s Authority and the New Testament

Closely tied to the Spirit’s guidance is the question of the Church’s authority to recognize authentic Scripture and define doctrine. Historically, it was the very same Church—the large, communion-bound network of bishops (often in straight line from the Apostles) and faithful across the Mediterranean world—that convened councils like Nicaea (325) and also deliberated on which writings were truly apostolic. By AD 393 (Council of Hippo) and AD 397 (Council of Carthage) in the West, and through influential Eastern figures like Athanasius of Alexandria, the Church identified a common canon of New Testament writings.

This historical reality means that the canon we hold today is inseparably linked to the proto-Nicene Church that copied, preserved, and used these texts liturgically. The process was mutual: the Church recognized in certain texts (e.g., John, Paul’s letters, the Synoptic Gospels) a robust, reliable witness to Christ’s divinity and the Spirit’s power, and that very witness in turn helped shape the Church’s theological consciousness in a Trinitarian direction. Far from imposing a foreign theology on neutral texts, the Church selected as canon those documents that resonated with her lived, worshiping faith in the triune God.

2. Biblical Foundations: From Jewish Monotheism to Christ the Lord

One of the most remarkable developments in early Christianity was how it upheld strict Jewish monotheism—“Hear, O Israel: the LORD our God, the LORD is one” (Deut 6:4)—while also expanding that monotheism to include Jesus as fully divine, and the Holy Spirit as God’s own presence. This shift did not happen in a vacuum; it unfolded in a context where first-century Jews were already reflecting on the complexity of the one God (for instance, personified Wisdom in Proverbs, or divine Memra/Word in certain Aramaic traditions). Yet the post-resurrection experience of Jesus pushed early believers far beyond typical Jewish categories, compelling them to reshape their understanding of God’s oneness in a dramatic yet coherent way. As we’ll see not only in explicit references to Christ as God in referencing the Shema, we’ll also see a logic that flows like this Jewish monotheism → Jesus’ divinity → John’s theology → the Holy Spirit, but this fits within this whole piece’s logic which flows like this Jewish monotheism → Christ’s full deity → the Spirit’s co-divinity → a Church shaped by triune worship and Scripture. But this will take some development through the various sections of this piece. But the preliminary examples we start presenting here,

Deuteronomy 10:17

“For the LORD your God is God of gods and Lord of lords, the great, the mighty, and the awesome God…”

This highlights Yahweh’s unrivaled supremacy. Yet Revelation 19:16 bestows the title “Lord of lords” on Christ, showing that early Christians placed Jesus in the unique divine status that Deuteronomy attributes to Yahweh alone.

Psalm 115:16

“The heavens are the LORD’s heavens, but the earth he has given to the children of man.”

This underscores the dividing line between Creator and creation. Since Jesus does all the Father does (John 5:19) and is credited with creating “all things” (John 1:1–3), He must reside on the Creator side of that line.

Paul, however is probably our premier exemplar of how this shift took place in real time, so that’s where we start…

2.1 The Shema and Early Christian Reinterpretation

For devout Jews, the Shema (Deut 6:4) was the heart of monotheism, recited daily as a declaration that the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was utterly unique. Yet the earliest Christian communities—composed initially of Jewish believers—found themselves worshiping Jesus as Lord in ways normally reserved for Yahweh. How could they do this without shattering their monotheistic inheritance?

Paul’s Reworking of the Shema
In 1 Corinthians 8:6, Paul daringly adapts the Shema’s language:

“Yet for us there is one God, the Father… and one Lord, Jesus Christ…”
By calling Jesus “Lord” (Kyrios), Paul is applying to Jesus the title that Greek-speaking Jews used for Yahweh in the Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament). This is not merely giving Jesus a respectful label but folding Him into the identity of the one God of Israel. For a Jewish mind steeped in the Shema, this is revolutionary. Yet Paul, in a single sweeping statement, both retains monotheism (there is one God) and includes Jesus in that monotheistic belief.

Johannine “I AM”
The Gospel of John—written in a setting shaped by both Jewish and Hellenistic contexts—presents Jesus saying, “Before Abraham was, I am” (John 8:58). The Greek phrase egō eimi (“I am”) forcefully echoes Exodus 3:14, where God reveals the divine name to Moses: “I AM WHO I AM.” Jesus’ audience in John’s Gospel understands this as a claim to deity, which is why they immediately attempt to stone Him for blasphemy (v. 59). From the earliest Christian perspective, then, Jesus is not an additional deity but the same God who spoke to Moses in the burning bush.

Taken together, these examples show that from the start, early Christian “monotheism” was not about counting up the number of gods, but about recognizing the unique, incomparable God of Israel. The Father is God, and Jesus shares in that same divine identity without splitting God into two. Soon, as we will see, the Holy Spirit becomes explicitly included in that same divine realm.

Please note, this is like 2,000 years of exegesis in a few short words. I, for example, have gone in much more depth on this issue here if you’re interested: How the Old and New Testaments Reveal a Triune God – RobertDryer

2.2 Jesus’ Divine Status in Apostolic Proclamation

The earliest Christian communities didn’t see Jesus as a mere prophet or angelic figure. They worshiped Him in ways that devout Jews would reserve for Yahweh. This leads to the well-known early Christian confession: “Jesus is Lord” (Rom 10:9). The acknowledgement is profound re-presentation of what oneness means.

John 5:19 – “Whatever the Father Does, the Son Does Likewise”

“Truly, truly, I say to you, the Son can do nothing of his own accord …”
This, in context of John, profoundly illustrates that this does not imply subordination but rather full divine equality in works.

John 5:26 – “Life in Himself”

“For as the Father has life in Himself …”
Again, in context, God’s eternality in the revelation of Christ becomes a vital element. Here eternal generation vs. temporal creation become interesting distinctions biblically.

Deut 10:17 & Ps 115:16

Since Deut 10:17 insists only Yahweh is Lord of lords, but the New Testament calls Jesus “Lord of lords,” we find examples of the affirmation that Jesus shares the Father’s unique divine identity.
Psalm 115:16’s Creator/creation boundary likewise excludes Christ from the category of “created.”

B. Eternal Generation and the Name of God

Kyrios as God’s Name
The Greek term Kyrios was the standard translation of YHWH (Yahweh) in the Septuagint. Thus, when believers proclaimed “Jesus is Lord,” they were effectively saying, “Jesus shares the divine name.” This was not just polite address; it was confessional language, elevating Jesus to the sphere of God.
High Christology from the Start
Earlier scholarship sometimes posited an “evolution” from low Christology (Jesus as merely human) to high Christology (Jesus as God). Modern studies—such as those by Larry Hurtado—demonstrate that devotion to Jesus as divine exploded quite early, fueled by the resurrection experience. If only God can overcome death, and Jesus overcame it as a cosmic event, then Jesus must be “in the form of God” (Phil 2:6) or “the image of the invisible God” (Col 1:15).
Biblical Data
- Philippians 2:6–11: Often called the “Christ Hymn,” it portrays Jesus as one who did not grasp at divine equality but willingly took on the form of a servant, resulting in His exaltation to the point that “every knee shall bow” (v. 10). This echoes Isaiah 45:23, where every knee bows to Yahweh alone.
- Colossians 1:15–20: Jesus is described as the Creator of all things, “in heaven and on earth,” and the “image of the invisible God.” This is a clear statement placing Jesus within the divine identity, not as a subordinate or lesser being.
Unbroken Biblical Data: The New Testament consistently echoes and builds upon the Old Testament’s foundational witness, leveraging the Hebrew and Greek biblical witness as a grammar for its own wording and theology. For example, the Old Testament for the New includes the Septuagint rendering of the Shema (“Ἄκουε Ἰσραήλ, Κύριος ὁ Θεὸς ἡμῶν, Κύριος εἷς ἐστιν”), rather than replacing or contradicting it. Another example here is when Jesus declares, “Before Abraham was, I AM” (John 8:58), He directly echoes Exodus 3:14, identifying Himself with the self-existent God of Israel. Likewise, Paul in 1 Corinthians 8:6 deliberately mirrors the Shema’s “εἷς Θεός” (one God) and adds “εἷς Κύριος” (one Lord) for Christ–“ἀλλ’ ἡμῖν εἷς Θεὸς ὁ Πατήρ… καὶ εἷς Κύριος Ἰησοῦς Χριστός”–thus incorporating Jesus into Israel’s monotheistic confession. This continuity shows that the New Testament writers draw on the same theological tradition while reinterpreting it in the light of Christ, echoing, fulfilling, and applying the Old Testament’s timeless truths of divine simplicity and oneness to the context of the Gospel.

These passages and the like reveal a proto-Nicene structure: the Father is God, Jesus is fully God, yet they are personally distinct. A robust monotheism is maintained, but expanded to include Jesus in the oneness of God.

2.3 The Spirit as God’s Own Presence

While acknowledging Jesus in the divine identity was dramatic enough, the earliest Christians also recognized the Holy Spirit as fully divine. This did not happen centuries later but was present in the New Testament texts themselves.

From Impersonal to Personal
In Judaism, the concept of God’s Spirit often evoked God’s active power—“the Spirit of the Lord hovered over the waters” (Gen 1:2). Yet in the New Testament, the Spirit is not merely an impersonal force but a personal agent who teaches, guides, and intercedes (John 14–16, Rom 8:26–27).
1 Corinthians 12:4–6
A striking example occurs when Paul writes:

“Now there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit; and there are varieties of service, but the same Lord; and there are varieties of activities, but it is the same God who empowers them all…”
Notice how Paul places “Spirit,” “Lord” (Jesus), and “God” (the Father) in direct parallel. This is not accidental: it indicates a triadic framework where each person is the source of distinct operations, all operating within the unity of divine life.

Practical Experience
Early Christians recognized that the Spirit was indwelling them, enabling prophetic utterances, facilitating discernment, and forging unity. In short, the Spirit’s activity was regarded as God at work within the Church. If “the Spirit of Him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you,” (Rom 8:11), then the Church experiences the Spirit’s presence as truly divine.

Thus, from a very early stage, Father, Son, and Spirit were spoken of in ways that insisted upon their shared divinity, yet without fragmenting the one God. Far from a philosophical puzzle, this was a lived reality—one that demanded new theological language to express.

3. Paul’s Trinitarian Vision

Paul’s letters (written between roughly AD 50 and 65) are the earliest Christian documents we possess. They show that a proto-Nicene or triadic understanding of God was already in circulation well before Nicaea (AD 325). Although Paul never penned a “doctrine of the Trinity,” his casual references to the Father, Son, and Spirit reveal a deep conviction about their shared divine status.

3.1 Reconfiguring the Shema (1 Corinthians 8:6)

The single verse 1 Corinthians 8:6 might be the boldest reconfiguration of the Shema:

“Yet for us there is one God, the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist,
and one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist.”

Maintaining Monotheism
Paul begins by affirming “there is one God, the Father”—clearly echoing the Shema. But then adds “one Lord, Jesus Christ,” applying the same Shema’s emphasis on “one Lord” to Jesus.
Distinct Roles, One Divine Identity
- The Father is described as the source (“from whom are all things”),
- The Son is the agent (“through whom are all things”).
  Yet both share in the creative act that was previously thought to belong to Yahweh alone. Paul is not dividing God into two but integrating Jesus into the unique identity of God.
- As mentioned above, he also continues the LXX version of calling Christ LORD, giving him the divine name….That is the Septuagint rendering of the Shema (“Ἄκουε Ἰσραήλ, Κύριος ὁ Θεὸς ἡμῶν, Κύριος εἷς ἐστιν”), rather than replacing or contradicting it he leverages by combining the Father’s usage with generic Greek, and Christ’s name with proper LXX Biblical Greek…Genius level appropriation.

3.2 Christ as Wisdom and Image

Elsewhere, Paul uses deep theological titles for Jesus:

Wisdom of God (1 Cor 1:24, Col 2:3)
Jewish literature like Proverbs 8 or the Wisdom of Solomon often personified “Wisdom” as present with God before creation. By calling Jesus the “Wisdom of God,” Paul implies Jesus is God’s co-creator and co-eternal companion.
Image (eikōn) of God (2 Cor 4:4, Col 1:15)
To see Christ is to see the Father’s very nature: “He is the image of the invisible God.” This phrase goes beyond a mere metaphor; it connotes that Jesus manifests the Father’s essence. Nicene language later formulated this as “Light from Light, true God from true God.”

These designations anticipate the Creed’s later language but were already embedded in Paul’s writing. Clearly, Paul envisions Jesus sharing the divine nature rather than being an external or lesser figure.

3.3 The Holy Spirit in Pauline Thought

Paul’s letters not only exalt Jesus but also emphasize the Spirit’s central role in salvation:

Indwelling (1 Cor 3:16, 6:19): The Spirit makes believers “temples” of God, implying a personal, divine occupant.
Intercession (Rom 8:26–27): The Spirit prays through believers “with groanings too deep for words,” suggesting a conscious will and agency.
Bestowing Gifts (1 Cor 12): The Spirit is the source of a variety of charisms—wisdom, healing, prophecy—further underscoring a personal, divine prerogative.

In Galatians 4:6, we read: “God has sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts, crying, ‘Abba! Father!’” Each phrase underscores the interpersonal relationships within God’s being: the Father sends the Spirit of the Son into believers. Thus, Christian salvation is not merely moral improvement; it is participation in the triune life.

3.4 Triadic Benedictions and Doxologies

Paul frequently ends his letters with triadic blessings. A prime example is 2 Corinthians 13:14:

“The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all.”

Here, Father, Son, and Spirit are each invoked in bestowing distinct yet unified blessings—grace, love, and fellowship. Though Paul never systematically “defines” the Trinity, the shape of his prayers and doxologies reveals a deep-seated triadic theology that Nicene councils would later articulate in more philosophic terms.

4. John’s Trinitarian Vision

If Paul’s letters give us an implicit triadic framework, the Johannine writings (the Gospel of John, 1–3 John, and Revelation) make this even more explicit. John emphasizes Christ’s eternal deity and the Holy Spirit’s personal nature with unparalleled clarity in the New Testament.

4.1 The Eternal Word (John 1:1–18)

A. John 5 and Eternal Sonship

If you remember back to John 5:19, 5:26, and their significance of those verses in Johannine theology, as we covered in the John 5 in Section 2.2, these will provide further emphasis to what we see here.

B. John’s Prologue famously states:

“In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.” (John 1:1)

With God & Was God
Here John simultaneously distinguishes the Word from God the Father (“the Word was with God”) and identifies the Word with the divine essence (“the Word was God”). This lines up precisely with what Nicene theology would later say: the Son is co-eternal with the Father, yet personally distinct. John 1:1c strongly suggests the fullness of divine nature rather than an emergent Christology, contradicting a gradual revelation narrative—not that such a narrative is entirely opposed to the claims here, but it is notable for obvious reasons. In any case, it is intuitive to read θεὸς in John 1:1c qualitatively, emphasizing that the Logos fully shares in what it means to be God without collapsing into the identity of the Father. Moreover, the Gospel’s development of Christ’s divine identity is not merely a case of gradual revelation but a sustained theme from John 1 onward. Ultimately, the theological lens one adopts—whether influenced by a favorite Trinitarian theologian, Nicene sources, or another perspective—will shape how one integrates these textual findings. Nonetheless, this verse provides a direct line to John 20:28 and embodies a form of Trinitarianism, further supporting the idea that the Bible, taken as a whole, is a type of Trinitarianism and, in light of Nicaea, can be characterized as proto-Nicene, since the goal line here is a binary, a type of trinitarian, period, or not (which it is).
The Word Became Flesh (John 1:14)
The Logos (Word) is not simply a heavenly idea; He became flesh and dwelt among us. Thus, Jesus is the incarnate God. This sets the stage for a high Christology that sees the fullness of deity in Jesus’ human existence.
Revelation of the Father (John 1:18)
John declares no one has ever seen God, but the only-begotten Son “has made him known.” Jesus thus becomes the self-revelation of the Father, reflecting an eternal relationship consistent with the notion of “begotten, not made.”

4.2 “Before Abraham Was, I AM” (John 8:58) and Pre-human-nature-existence Theme

John 8:58 resonates with Exodus 3:14, where God’s name is “I AM.” Jesus’ claim outrages His audience, who see it as blasphemous. This tension showcases John’s robust theology: Jesus is the divine “I AM” who transcends time and covenants. The Gospel of John repeatedly uses “I am” statements (e.g., John 6:35; 8:12; 10:11; 14:6) that echo Old Testament Yahweh revelations. And books could be written on his continuity with Isiash’s use of I AM statements too, but that would make this piece too long: https://robertdryer.com/defending-divine-simplicity/how-the-old-and-new-testaments-reveal-a-triune-god/

Beyond the I AM statement examples the overall theme from John is also illustrated in ways like this:

The opening of 1 John, but especially 1:2, is an account of the mission of the Son. It includes his preexistence but emphasizes his communication to us. This is a communication that is cognitive (“made manifest”) as well as interpersonal (“fellowship”) & saving (“life”).

1 John 1:1-4 (ESV):

1 That which was from the beginning, which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes, which we looked upon and have touched with our hands, concerning the word of life-”

2 the life was made manifest, and we have seen it, and testify to it and proclaim to you the eternal life, which was with the Father and was made manifest to us-”

3 that which we have seen and heard we proclaim also to you, so that you too may have fellowship with us; and indeed our fellowship is with the Father and with his Son Jesus Christ.

4 And we are writing these things so that our joy may be complete.

This passage highlights the Son’s preexistence, His manifestation, and the relational aspect of divine life as testified in 1 John and John’s corpus overall.

This later insight comes from pictured below, but is not original and is pretty straight forward exegesis too:

4.3 The Spirit as Paraclete and Truth

John devotes significant space to describing the Holy Spirit as a personal advocate (Paraklētos), particularly in chapters 14–16:

Another Advocate (John 14:16): Jesus promises another Comforter, implying Jesus Himself is also an Advocate. The Spirit’s role is to “teach” and “bring to remembrance all that Jesus said” (14:26). This personification pushes far beyond an impersonal force.
The Spirit Is Truth (1 John 5:6): John goes so far as to call the Spirit “truth,” paralleling Jesus’ own identity (John 14:6). Both are intimately related, yet distinct from the Father.

Such language signals that John sees the Spirit as fully divine, sharing the same essence as the Father and the Son.

4.4 Worship of the Lamb in Revelation

A. Revelation 3:12 – “My God” Language

“The one who conquers, I will make him a pillar in the temple of my God …”
Christ, speaking in His exalted-yet-incarnate capacity, distinguishing the Economic vs. Immanent Trinity, and thus emphasizes that it does not imply Jesus is created or lesser. This leads to an amazing presentation of the book of Revelation in general…

B. Revelation broadens John’s testimony to include the apocalyptic vision where the Lamb (Christ) receives the same worship as “the One who sits on the throne” (Rev 5:13). In a Jewish framework, worship belongs to God alone (Deut 6:13; Exod 34:14). Yet John applies it unhesitatingly to Jesus, placing Him on par with the Father. Meanwhile, the Spirit (the “seven spirits” before the throne, Rev 1:4; 4:5) figures in the cosmic outworking of God’s plan. Thus, Revelation weaves Father, Son, and Spirit into a triune vision of God’s sovereignty over history.

5. The Holy Spirit: Personal Presence and Divine Truth

For many believers, it was somewhat more intuitive to call Jesus “Lord,” since He had tangibly walked among them. Yet the early Church quickly grasped that the Spirit was also fully God—not merely an impersonal force but the living, personal presence of God acting within believers and the community. As we’ll see below and have been referencing via examples like John 5 above, we can also see links the Spirit’s divine work to the Son’s complete share in the Father’s operations, e.g., if the Son does all the Father does, then the Spirit who applies that same divine work in believers is likewise fully God.

5.1 Indwelling and Sanctification

Temple Motif: Paul’s declaration “You are the temple of the Holy Spirit” (1 Cor 6:19) conveys that God’s own presence dwells in the Church. In ancient Judaism, God’s glory dwelled in the Holy of Holies. Now the Spirit resides in individual and collective believers, fulfilling that same divine function.
Romans 8:9–11: The Spirit is called both “the Spirit of God” and “the Spirit of Christ.” This underscores the unity between Father and Son, now extended into believers through the Spirit’s indwelling. Salvation is thus intimately Trinitarian: from the Father, through the Son, and in the Spirit.

5.2 The Spirit in Corporate Worship

Prayer and Charisms: Christians in the first century prayed “in the Spirit” (Eph 6:18) and recognized the Spirit’s charismatic gifts—prophecy, tongues, healing (1 Cor 12–14)—as divine operations.
Discernment and Church Decisions: In Acts 15:28, the earliest apostles attribute their doctrinal decisions to “the Holy Spirit and us,” implying the Spirit is an active, authoritative agent guiding the Church.

These practices highlight the Spirit’s personhood—teaching, prompting, and even being “obeyed” or “grieved” (Eph 4:30). No purely impersonal force can exhibit such relational attributes.

5.3 The Triadic Pattern in Baptism

Perhaps the most definitive example of proto-Nicene practice is the baptismal formula in Matthew 28:19:

“Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.”

The Singular “Name”
The text says “in the name” (singular), not “in the names” (plural). This suggests a shared divine identity among Father, Son, and Spirit—three distinct persons, one God.
Early Liturgical Practice
By the close of the first century (as hinted in the Didache and other documents), this triadic baptism had become standard. Well before the Nicene Creed formalized trinitarian language, Christians were entering the community of faith through a triadic confession.

Hence, from Pentecost onward, the Holy Spirit was never peripheral but stood at the core of Christian identity, uniting believers to the Father through the Son—another affirmation of the proto-Nicene faith.

Foundations

Taken together, the biblical record—spanning Paul’s early letters to John’s later writings—reveals a consistent triadic pattern:

The Father is unequivocally God, the Source of all things.
Jesus the Son is fully included in the Father’s divine identity, receiving worship, and participating in creation.
The Holy Spirit is God’s own personal presence, guiding, gifting, and sanctifying the Church.

Despite the diversity of authors and contexts, these writings converge on the same conviction: God’s oneness is relationally rich, encompassing Father, Son, and Spirit. Later councils (Nicaea, Constantinople) did not invent this reality but merely clarified it against heretical misunderstandings. Far from a late overlay, proto-Nicene Trinitarianism was there in good form from the earliest testimonies of the Christian faith. It’s a biblical version of trinitarianism for sure but it is clearly there.

6. Canon Formation and the Church’s Transmission of Faith

The New Testament canon did not appear as a pre-bound codex from heaven. Rather, local communities circulated apostolic writings, and the Church gradually discerned which texts were inspired and authoritative. By the 2nd and 3rd centuries, Christians East and West were converging on what would become the 27-book New Testament.

6.1 Canon Formation: Shaped by a Trinitarian Church

It is vital to see that the same proto-Nicene Church—praying to Father, Son, and Spirit—was the body that collected, copied, and preserved these writings. Already worshiping Christ as Lord and acknowledging the Spirit as divine, the Church naturally gravitated to the texts that aligned with this triadic faith.

Common Worship and Doctrine
From the late 1st century onward, Christian communities prayed to Jesus, invoked the Father, and relied on the Spirit. This triadic liturgical core guided which writings were deemed life-giving and apostolic: Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John) and Pauline epistles, for instance, strongly resonated with believers’ experience of Christ’s divinity and the Spirit’s presence.
Emerging Ecclesial Consensus
No single event suddenly fixed the canon. Instead, regional synods and influential bishops published lists. The Councils of Hippo (393) and Carthage (397) are noted in the West, while Eastern figures like Athanasius (in his 39th Festal Letter, 367) listed the same 27 books. By then, major theological battles—especially over Christ’s full divinity—had shaped an ecclesial consciousness that was firmly proto-Nicene.

Hence, when the New Testament canon was widely recognized, the Church already possessed a robustly triadic understanding of God. The canonical texts both expressed and reinforced this proto-Nicene outlook.

6.2 Mutual Reinforcement: Canon and Proto-Nicene Theology

The Canon Affirms a Triune God
The Gospels, Paul’s letters, and Johannine writings manifest a Trinitarian (or proto-Nicene) tone. They consistently ascribe divine prerogatives to Christ and personal divinity to the Spirit—precisely what the Church recognized as apostolic teaching.
Filtering Out Dissonant Voices
Alternative texts (e.g., certain Gnostic “gospels,” Ebionite writings) presented Jesus as purely spiritual or merely human, or denied the Spirit’s personhood. These never gained broad acceptance in the “Great Church,” since they contradicted the worshiping experience of Christ’s lordship and the Spirit’s presence. Groups advocating such writings either vanished or failed to coalesce into a universally recognized church.

6.3 Eastern and Western Churches as Custodians

When we speak of “Eastern” (Greek-speaking) and “Western” (Latin-speaking) churches, we refer to a single, unified Christian society in the first few centuries. They had liturgical and theological variations but shared fundamental orthodoxy.

Before the Schism: The East–West Schism (1054) came centuries later. During the formative canon-discernment period (2nd–4th centuries), the Church functioned as one body. This explains why the 27-book New Testament is universally shared by Orthodoxy, Catholicism, and later Protestant traditions.
Importance of Councils: Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381) addressed crucial Christological and pneumatological questions, in parallel with synods refining the New Testament canon. Over time, the West (Hippo, Carthage) and East (Athanasius, etc.) arrived at essentially the same list, through a Trinitarian lens.

7. The Emergence of Nicene Terminology

While the New Testament and earliest patristic writings show a proto-Nicene worldview, not until the Arian controversy of the early 4th century did the Church define its teachings with new philosophical precision. (This section I’ve reduced for now because this is basic history one can google.)

7.1 Nicaea (AD 325)

Nicaea was convened to address Arius’s claim that “there was a time when the Son was not,” effectively denying Christ’s eternal divinity. The Nicene fathers responded with homoousios (“of one essence”)—affirming the Son shares the Father’s eternal Godhead.

Proto-Nicene Roots: Nicaea did not invent Christ’s divinity; it used Greek philosophical language to clarify that Jesus was not a lesser, created being. The council fathers frequently cited Scripture—Paul, John, the Synoptics, Hebrews—to show that the Son’s relationship to the Father is one of eternal generation, not creation.

7.2 Constantinople (AD 381)

Half a century later, the First Council of Constantinople expanded and clarified the Creed’s language about the Holy Spirit, affirming the Spirit’s full divinity—“the Lord and Giver of Life… who proceeds from the Father.” This addressed factions that acknowledged Christ’s divinity but treated the Spirit as lesser.

Thus, while the Nicene Creed (in its 381 form) introduced terms like “of one essence,” “begotten, not made,” and “who proceeds,” the essential triune pattern was already present in canonical Scripture and proto-Nicene worship. The councils crystallized what the Church, led by the Holy Spirit, had believed from the outset.

8. Pastoral and Worship Implications of Proto-Nicene Faith

Early Church theology was never purely academic. It was pastoral and liturgical concerns that motivated doctrinal definitions. Confessing Jesus as God and the Holy Spirit as divine transforms every dimension of Christian spirituality.

8.1 Worship and Liturgy

Baptism
Even before the Nicene Creed existed, converts were baptized “in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” (Matt 28:19). This pointed to a communion of three persons from the start.
Eucharistic Prayers and Doxologies
The Didache (1st–2nd century) and early Eucharistic prayers often invoke Father, Son, and Spirit together, displaying a triadic liturgical environment that predates any council.

8.2 Scripture in the Life of the Church

The same Spirit who inspired Scripture (2 Tim 3:16, 2 Pet 1:21) indwelt the Church, so early believers interpreted the Bible in a liturgical and communal context. This synergy prevented major distortions: if a teacher claimed John’s Gospel relegated Jesus to a mere creature, believers recognized it as a betrayal of the apostolic faith expressed in worship.

8.3 Battling Heresies and Preserving Orthodoxy

From Gnosticism to Arianism, distortions of Christ’s identity and the Spirit’s nature posed pastoral threats. If Jesus were only an angelic figure, salvation might be incomplete. If the Spirit were impersonal, sacraments might be purely symbolic. Proto-Nicene theology—anchored in worship, Scripture, and apostolic tradition—preserved the truth that God through his own direct manifestation redeemed humanity in Christ and dwells among believers by the Spirit.

9. The Canon as a “Proto-Nicene” Text Academically

Even modern scholarly work—from both confessional and more purely academic perspectives—suggests that the New Testament itself can be seen as a “proto-Nicene” collection, shaped and finalized by a Church that already worshiped Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as one God. While much of this scholarship is not overtly Christian in its aims (and so we do not base our faith on it), it nevertheless provides valuable historical corroboration of the early Church’s triadic consciousness.

Larry Hurtado (e.g., Lord Jesus Christ) has shown that devotion to Jesus as divine was firmly in place by the close of the first century, challenging the idea that high Christology was a late invention.
Richard Bauckham (e.g., Jesus and the God of Israel) argues that Jesus is swiftly included in the “unique divine identity” of Israel’s God.
Martin Hengel and J. N. D. Kelly similarly stress that belief in Christ’s full divinity took root among Christians so rapidly that we see it already in the sub-apostolic period.
Charles E. Hill (e.g., Who Chose the Gospels?) underscores how the fourfold Gospel canon emerged from churches consistently worshiping Jesus as God’s Son and invoking the Holy Spirit.

All these studies, while not always written from confessional standpoints, align with the claim that the texts eventually recognized as canonical were produced, circulated, and accepted within a triadic worshiping community. This helps show how “proto-Nicene” sensibilities were already embedded in the Church’s life long before Nicaea (AD 325).

9.1 Shaped by a Triadic Church

Common Worship and Doctrine
By the mid-2nd century, widely scattered Christian communities shared core beliefs in Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. They read the Gospels and Paul’s letters in worship; these texts consistently presented a high Christology (as modern scholars like Hurtado and Bauckham note) and a personal, divine role for the Holy Spirit. United by triadic baptism and Eucharist, believers effectively judged which writings “rang true” to apostolic teaching.
Ecclesial Consensus
Local councils (Hippo 393, Carthage 397) and influential figures (Athanasius in the East, Augustine in the West) eventually ratified this grassroots consensus. Even after East and West later parted ways, they still agreed on the same 27 books—a testament to how proto-Nicene consciousness undergirded canon selection. Historically oriented researchers like Charles E. Hill and others confirm that an authentically triadic pattern of worship shaped which books became universally recognized.

9.2 Mutual Reinforcement

Texts That Affirm the Triune God
John’s Gospel, with its soaring Christology, was indispensable; Paul’s epistles, filled with triadic references (e.g., 2 Cor 13:14), were central; Matthew’s explicit Trinitarian baptismal formula (Matt 28:19) was a liturgical staple. Scholarly work on early Christian devotion (e.g., Hurtado’s focus on worship practices) suggests these texts resonated powerfully with communities already perceiving God in Father, Son, and Spirit.
Filtering Out Dissonant Voices
Gnostic writings, Marcion’s curtailed canon, or Ebionite texts denying Jesus’ divinity never became normative for the mainstream Church. They contradicted believers’ day-to-day experience of Christ as Lord and the Spirit as God’s presence—experiences central to early Christian liturgy. Scholars such as Hengel and Kelly illustrate how rapidly heretical positions were sidelined due to their clash with an emerging proto-Nicene consensus. If anything sectarianism of non-mainstream approaches helped solidify trinitarianism and the need for perserving texts that get at the triadic view it represents. Thus, non-trinitarian views (such as those later branded as heretical) were influential in the early centuries and contributed to the very debates that forced the church to articulate its doctrine more clearly, hence how we go from the triadic tradition as the foundation for the more clear Nicene tradition the Spirit eventually led the church to.

9.3 The Eastern and Western Custodians

Before the East–West Schism (1054), the Church existed as one communion across a vast territory. Both halves agreed on proto-Nicene convictions: the Father, Son, and Spirit are co-eternal, co-equal, and one God. Their liturgies, though varied in form, shared a triune core. The final shape of the canon emerged as a universal shape, reflecting that shared proto-Nicene perspective.

Thus, even from an academic vantage point—whether through the works of Hurtado, Bauckham, Hengel, Kelly, or more recent scholars like Hill—the evidence suggests that the New Testament canon was formed by and for a Church that already believed in one God revealed in Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This “proto-Nicene” disposition therefore underwrote the Church’s recognition of which books were authentically apostolic and life-giving.

10. Alternative Sectarian Movements and the “Restorationist” Claim

Could there have been ancient groups using the same New Testament canon but promoting a radically different, non-triune theology, surviving to the present?

10.1 No Surviving Unbroken “Heretical” Line

Historically, no heretical groups from the early centuries survived as intact, large-scale communities that kept the same 27-book New Testament:

Gnostic Sects (2nd–3rd centuries)
Relied on “secret gospels,” had drastically different cosmologies, and denied large parts of what became canon. They eventually fragmented and disappeared.
Marcionites (2nd–5th centuries)
Used a drastically reduced canon. They lingered a few centuries but never adopted the full 27-book New Testament.
Arianism (4th century)
Claimed the Son was not co-eternal with the Father. Though briefly influential, they eventually vanished or returned to Nicene faith.
Please note. I am not saying the early church was monolithic. clearly non-trinitarian views are historical (such as those later branded as heretical), but they did not in fact survive in a continuous institutional form, they were influential in the early centuries and contributed to the very debates that forced the church to articulate its doctrine more clearly. But they were later philosophical issues that rose as the church grew outside and beyond the churches the Apostle’s started directly. None of these Hellenistically based or contextualized heretical views are present in the bible the unbroken church preserved and modern restorationists groups have to do revisionism in order to find their views represented.

10.2 Modern Non-Trinitarian Groups

Contemporary groups (e.g., Jehovah’s Witnesses, Unitarians, Oneness Pentecostals, Latter-day Saints) might hold to the same 27-book New Testament, but:

They Are Not Ancient
They arose between the 16th and 20th centuries, not as continuous lines from early “rivals” to Nicene orthodoxy.
Restorationist Logic
They claim the early Church lost or corrupted the true faith soon after the apostolic era, thus needing to “restore” the correct interpretation. Yet they rely on the canon established by the proto-Nicene Church and interpret it in ways that depart from its historic, triadic reading. I’ve worked with one of these groups for example’s sake here: THE PREMIER CASE AGAINST UNITARIANISM: – RobertDryer

No parallel, continuous lineage of non-triune Christians using the same canon appears in history.

11. Pastoral and Worship Implications of a “Proto-Nicene” Canon

Recognizing the Bible itself as “proto-Nicene” carries significant doctrinal and pastoral consequences:

Scripture and Tradition in Harmony
The canon is not arbitrary; it is the product of a Church shaped by triadic worship. Scripture and the proto-Nicene tradition reinforce each other rather than conflict.
Authority and Community
Those who affirm Nicene faith can do so with confidence that their Trinitarian understanding is grounded in the New Testament’s core witness, confirmed by centuries of worship in Orthodox, Catholic, and historic Protestant communities.
Continuity with Apostolic Teaching
Recognizing proto-Nicene motifs in Paul and John underscores that the 4th-century councils did not create new doctrines but defended the original apostolic witness. Modern believers stand in line with that same faith “once for all delivered to the saints” (Jude 3).

12. Conclusion

Proto-Nicene Trinitarianism names the robust triadic understanding of God deeply embedded in the New Testament and the life of the early Church. It is “proto-” because it predates the formal definitions of the Council of Nicaea (AD 325) and the Council of Constantinople (AD 381). It is “Nicene” because it contains the same essential conviction: the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are each fully divine, while remaining one God.

From Paul, we see Jesus Christ seamlessly included in the identity of Israel’s one God and the Holy Spirit clearly portrayed as divine. From John, we receive the strongest assertions of the Word’s eternal deity—“the Word was God”—and the Spirit’s role as Advocate who leads into truth. The baptismal formula of Matthew 28:19 cements this triadic framework: Christians from the earliest days baptized in one divine name, revealed as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

That same Church, guided by the Spirit, recognized these writings as canonical. The final shape of the New Testament—agreed upon by East and West—both reflects and solidifies the Church’s proto-Nicene consciousness. In contrast, rival sects either vanished or used alternative canons. As centuries passed, theological controversies (e.g., Arianism) forced a deeper articulation of this faith, culminating in the Nicene Creed—a historically situated but faithful expression of the earlier, scripturally grounded conviction.

No continuous, non-Trinitarian Christian sect from antiquity preserves the same biblical canon while interpreting it in a self-consistent, non-Nicene manner. Modern groups rejecting Nicene theology are therefore “restorationist,” appearing after the Reformation era, and depending on the very canon that the proto-Nicene Church established.

Ultimately, proto-Nicene Trinitarianism stands as a testament to the Holy Spirit’s guidance across centuries, keeping the Church rooted in the truth Christ gave to the apostles. It reminds us that the Trinity is not a late philosophical overlay but sits at the very heart of God’s self-revelation: the Father sent the Son to redeem us, the risen Son poured out the Holy Spirit, and the tri-personal God invites humanity into communion with divine life. Far from being merely a doctrinal riddle, the Trinity is the living structure of divine love, a reality Christians have worshiped and proclaimed from the beginning.

In short, to call the New Testament canon “proto-Nicene” is to acknowledge that the same Spirit-filled community—confessing Father, Son, and Spirit as one God—curated these sacred writings. They are no random library, but the textual outflow of a worshiping Church formed by triadic faith. Thus, the Nicene Creed does not supplant or overwrite Scripture’s testimony; it clarifies and protects what was always present in seed form. We may therefore see the Nicene Creed as a faithful extension of that proto-Nicene reality experienced and proclaimed by the apostles.

13. Ongoing Significance

Having traced the threads of proto-Nicene theology from the New Testament era through the early councils, we close with key reasons why this doctrine continues to matter:

13.1 God’s Self-Revelation, Not Human Speculation

The triune identity of God arises from God’s own self-revelation in Christ and the Holy Spirit, not from human invention. The Church perceived and articulated what was revealed: the Father sends the Son, and the Father and Son send the Spirit.

13.2 A Living Communion, Not an Abstract Puzzle

The Trinity is more than a theoretical conundrum; it is the lived experience of the Church—expressed in baptism, the Eucharist, prayer, and community. Believers share in the very fellowship of Father, Son, and Spirit.

13.3 Guarding the Canonical Core

The same Church that worshiped Father, Son, and Spirit identified and transmitted the New Testament. This ensures that Scripture and proto-Nicene tradition are harmoniously intertwined, with no unbroken “rival” interpretation.

13.4 Unity in Diversity: Ecumenical Implications

All major ancient Christian bodies—Catholic, Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian Church of the East, and historic Protestants—affirm Nicene Trinitarianism. Acknowledging this shared, proto-Nicene heritage fosters dialogue and respect across traditions.

13.5 Mission and Evangelization

Understanding the proto-Nicene character of the New Testament bolsters missionary outreach and apologetics: it demonstrates that the Trinity is not a late add-on but is integral to the earliest Christian witness and the narrative of salvation.

Therefore, to embrace the proto-Nicene witness of Scripture is to stand with the earliest Christians—Jewish and Gentile alike—who, experiencing the risen Lord and the outpouring of the Spirit, began to proclaim the one God as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This is a form of Trinitarianism fully in line with, and supportive of what the Holy Spirit guided for his church throughout history.